Imbalances in fats and essential fatty acids

Nutrition_orange

Although a low-fat diet has typically been advised as healthy, and there are still plenty of “low-fat” foods being advertised and sold, current scientific evidence shows that low fat is not healthy, especially when it comes to mental health Kromhout, D. (2015). Where the latest US dietary guidelines are heading. [online] BMJ, 351, h4034. Available at: http://www.bmj.com/content/351/bmj.h4034 [accessed 26 Aug. 2017]..

  • Approximately 60% of our brain is made of fat Amen, D. (2013). Unleash The Power Of The Female Brain. New York: Harmony Books, p. 116.
  • Eating good fats has been shown to be essential for mental health and mood Talbott, S. (2007). The Cortisol Connection. Alameda, CA: Hunter House, pp. 23-6.

The quality of fat consumed however is essential. There are good and bad fats. Good fats can enhance your mood, cognition and anxiety levels, while bad fats can be detrimental to these Jacka, F., Sacks, G., Berk, M. and Allender, S. (2014). Food policies for physical and mental health. [online] BMC Psychiatry, 14 (1), p. 132. Available at: https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-244X-14-132 [accessed 25 Aug. 2017]..

The role of fats in mental health

Too many bad fats and too few good fats can contribute to:

Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, pp. 29-35., Scott, T. and Daniel, K. (May 2015). Real food for Anxiety: Butter, Broth and Beyond. [online] The Anxiety Summit, Season 3. Available at: http://season3.theanxietysummit.com/.

Types of fats and their role in mental health

Healthy fats are essential to mental health. They have the following benefits:

  • Balance mood, hormones, and blood sugar levels Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 29., Talbott, S. (2007). The Cortisol Connection. Alameda, CA: Hunter House, p. 151.
  • Alleviate the symptoms of anxiety, insomnia, and depression Scott, T. and Keith, L. (May 2015). Anxiety, Depression and the Vegetarian Diet. [online] The Anxiety Summit, Season 3. Available at: http://season3.theanxietysummit.com/.
  • Increase levels of endorphins (feel-good chemicals with opiate-like qualities) Matsumura, S., Eguchi, A., Okafuji, Y., Tatsu, S., Mizushige, T., Tsuzuki, S., Inoue, K. and Fushiki, T. (2012). Dietary fat ingestion activates β-endorphin neurons in the hypothalamus. [online] FEBS letters, 586 (8), pp. 1231-5. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22575661 [accessed 30 Aug. 2017].
  • Allow for the absorption of fat soluble vitamins such as K, D and A Dawson-Hughes, B., Harris, S., Lichtenstein, A., Dolnikowski, G., Palermo, N. and Rasmussen, H. (2015). Dietary fat increases vitamin D-3 absorption. [online] Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 115 (2), pp. 225-30. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25441954 [accessed 25 Aug. 2017].
  • Reduce inflammation Gluck, M. and Edgson, V. (2010). It Must Be My Hormones. Camberwell, Vic.: Penguin Group (Australia), p. 193.
  • Facilitate nerve transmission, thus improving memory and cognitive function Gluck, M. and Edgson, V. (2010). It Must Be My Hormones. Camberwell, Vic.: Penguin Group (Australia), p. 193.

Unhealthy fats, such as trans fats, or trans-fatty acids, and saturated fats, can be detrimental to mental health. Both trans-fatty acids and saturated fats can make your brain cells hard and rigid and interfere with the brain’s ability to process information quickly Perlmutter, D. and Colman, C. (2004). The Better Brain Book. New York: Riverhead Books, p. 26..

Below are different types of fats and their effects on mental health.

Trans fats are bad fats, with no health benefits whatsoever:

  • They are found in processed or fried foods and certain vegetable oils, such as hydrogenated vegetable oils
  • Trans fats compete with, damage and block the conversion of healthy Essential Fatty Acids such as GLA, DHA, EPA and prostaglandins, preventing them from doing their vital brain-protecting work Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 42, p. 79.
  • Trans fats are implicated in Alzheimer’s disease by contributing to beta amyloid production in the brain Barnard, N., Bush, A., Ceccarelli, A., Cooper, J., de Jager, C., Erickson, K., Lucey, B., Morris, M. and Squitti, R. (2014). Dietary and lifestyle guidelines for the prevention of Alzheimer’s disease. [online] Neurobiology of Aging, 35, S74–S78. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24913896 [accessed 25 Aug. 2017].
  • The saturated fat from the dairy and meat of grass fed animals, free range chicken, game, coconut oil, avocados, nuts and dark chocolate are healthy sources of saturated fats, while the saturated fats from processed meats, or dairy, eggs and meat from industrially raised animals tend to be unhealthy Harvard Health Publications: Harvard Medical School, (2015). The truth about fats: the good, the bad, and the in-between. [online] Available at: http://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/the-truth-about-fats-bad-and-good [accessed 25 Aug. 2017]., https://jonbarron.org/article/fats-and-brain-function
  • While some saturated fats are important for mental health, excessive levels can be correlated with cognitive decline and depression Jacka, F., Sacks, G., Berk, M. and Allender, S. (2014). Food policies for physical and mental health. [online] BMC Psychiatry, 14 (1), p. 132. Available at: https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-244X-14-132 [accessed 25 Aug. 2017]., Okereke, I., Rosner, B. A., Kim, D. H., Kang, J. H., Cook, N. R., Manson, J. E., Buring, J. E., Willett, W. C. and Grodstein, F. (2012). Dietary fat types and 4-year cognitive change in community-dwelling older women. [online] Annals of Neurology, 72 (1), pp. 124-34. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/wol1/doi/10.1002/ana.23593/full [accessed 30 Aug. 2017]., Jørgensen, B., Hansen, J., Krych, L., Larsen, C., Klein, A. B., Nielsen, D., Josefsen, K., Hansen, A. and Sørensen, D. (2014). A possible link between food and mood: dietary impact on gut microbiota and behavior in BALB/c mice. [online] PLoS One, 9 (8), e103398. Available at: http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0103398 [accessed 25 Aug. 2017].
  • Saturated fats increase cholesterol, while unsaturated fats reduce it

Role of saturated fats in mental health

  • Given the importance of cholesterol for mental health, getting a sufficient amount of saturated fats is important for mental health Shaw, W. (2016). 7th Annual Integrative Medicine for Mental Health Conference, Washington DC., Sánchez-Villegas, A., Verberne, L., De Irala, J., Ruíz-Canela, M., Toledo, E., Serra-Majem, L. and Martínez-González, M. (2011). Dietary fat intake and the risk of depression: the SUN Project. [online] PLoS One, 6 (1), e16268. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21298116 [accessed 25 Aug. 2017].
  • You get 60% of your daily calories from healthy fats, including some saturated fats. 25% of this is cholesterol (which you get from saturated fat) which is necessary for good brain function Lipton, B. (2014). 5 Things You Should Know About the Bulletproof Diet. [online] Health. Available at: http://www.health.com/food/what-is-the-bulletproof-diet [accessed 30 Oct. 2017].
  • It is well known that unsaturated fatty acids are important for normal brain and nerve function, however it is actually saturated fatty acids that are most essential Scott, T. and Keith, L. (May 2015). Anxiety, Depression and the Vegetarian Diet. [online] The Anxiety Summit, Season 3. Available at: http://season3.theanxietysummit.com/.
  • Saturated fats can boost immunity by helping white blood cells to destroy bacteria and other pathogens, and a strong immune system helps to support optimal mental health
  • Saturated fats can increase testosterone levels which aids tissue repair as well as increasing libido English, N. (2013). Everyone Was Wrong: Saturated Fat Can Be Good for You. [online] Greatist. Available at: https://greatist.com/health/saturated-fat-healthy [accessed 30 Oct. 2017]. 

Role of cholesterol in mental health

Cholesterol is a saturated fat, a steroid metabolite found in body cells and transported through the bloodstream Greenblatt, J. (2011). The Breakthrough Depression Solution. North Branch, MN: Sunrise River Press, pp. 145-149..

The brain has a high cholesterol content: 25% of total body cholesterol resides in the brain Vance, J. (2012). Dysregulation of cholesterol balance in the brain: contribution to neuro-degenerative diseases. [online] Disease Models and Mechanisms, 5 (6), pp. 746–755. Available at: http://dmm.biologists.org/content/5/6/746 [accessed 25 Aug. 2017]..

Excessive levels of blood cholesterol:

  • Can lead to heart disease an inflammation (which itself contributes to depression) Iwata, M., Ota, K. and Duman, R. (2013). The inflammasome: pathways linking psychological stress, depression, and systemic illnesses. [online] Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 31, pp. 105–14. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23261775 [accessed 25 Aug. 2017].

Cholesterol that is too low:

  • Can lead to mental health issues such as depression, aggression, violent behaviour, irritability, memory issues, addiction and suicide Amen, D. (2013). Unleash The Power Of The Female Brain. New York: Harmony Books, p. 116., Greenblatt, J. (2011). The Breakthrough Depression Solution. North Branch, MN: Sunrise River Press, pp. 145-159., Woeller, K. (2016). Anxiety: the link between low cholesterol and low oxytocin. 7th Annual Integrative Medicine for Mental Health Conference, Washington DC.
  • Cholesterol is essential to hormonal balance, which is essential to mental health
    • Sex hormones such as estrogen, progesterone and testosterone are made from cholesterol Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 48.
    • Stress hormones such as cortisol and adrenaline are made from cholesterol
    • Cholesterol seems to help augment the function of oxytocin and the oxytocin receptor sites Woeller, K. (2016). Anxiety: the link between low cholesterol and low oxytocin. 7th Annual Integrative Medicine for Mental Health Conference, Washington DC.
  • Cholesterol maintains cell walls and helps cell membranes maintain their fluidity and permeability, thus allowing them to be flexible and communicative with each other, and so is important to all cells in the human body, including the brain
    • Without cholesterol, the signalling between your brain cells becomes slower and weaker, because cholesterol insulates the brain cells so that electrical signals can travel faster across your brain Lipton, B. (2014). 5 Things You Should Know About the Bulletproof Diet. [online] Health. Available at: http://www.health.com/food/what-is-the-bulletproof-diet [accessed 30 Oct. 2017]. 
  • Cholesterol is involved in the production of bile acids for vitamin absorption – vitamins A, D, K
    • Cholesterol is vital in the production of vitamin D, and increased levels of vitamin D are associated with better mental and emotional health due in part to its importance for the production of the neurotransmitters dopamine, epinephrine, serotonin and norepinephrine which play a key role in mental health (2017). Depression. [online] Vitamin D Council. Available at: https://www.vitamindcouncil.org/health-conditions/depression/ [accessed 30 Oct. 2017].
  • Cholesterol serves as a major part of the coating of nerve cells and is essential for the myelin sheath Greenblatt, J. (2011). The Breakthrough Depression Solution. North Branch, MN: Sunrise River Press, pp. 145-159.

Levels of cholesterol for mental health

  • Minimum level: 160mg/dl
  • Optimal level: 220mg/dl

Shaw, W. (2016). Annual Integrative Medicine for Mental Health Conference, Washington DC.

Role of monounsaturated fats for mental health

Essential fatty acids are polyunsaturated fats (PUFAs) that must be obtained from the diet, as they cannot be manufactured by the body. As long as these fats are not rancid or destroyed by heat, they are considered “good fats” because they are healthy.

In humans there are two types: linoleic and alpha linolenic acids, both Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs), which are building blocks for Omega 6 and Omega 3 fatty acids, which are both essential for human health.

They are contained in the following types of foods:

  • Olive oil
  • Fish oil
  • Flax & hemp seed oil
  • Fats in avocados
  • Fats in nuts and seeds
  • Evening primrose oil
  • Starflower oil (borage oil)
  • Black seed oil

Talbott, S. (2007). The Cortisol Connection. Alameda, CA: Hunter House, pp. 23-6.

The principal sources of omega-3 are fish and seafood, but also seeds and nuts, and omega-6 is plant oils

Role of EFAs in mental health

  • EFAs have a protective action on the brain, by inhibiting the production of brain-damaging free radicals
  • EFAs control the signalling between nerve cells which controls mood Pentieva, K., Selhub, J., Paul, L., Molloy, A. M., McNulty, B., Ward, M., Marshall, B., Dornan, J., Reilly, R., Parle-McDermott, A., Bradbury, I., Ozaki, M., Scott, J.M. and McNulty, H. (2016). Evidence from a Randomized Trial That Exposure to Supplemental Folic Acid at Recommended Levels during Pregnancy Does Not Lead to Increased Unmetabolized Folic Acid Concentrations in Maternal or Cord Blood. [online] Journal of Nutrition, 146 (3), pp. 494-500. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26817717 [accessed 30 Aug. 2017]. 
    • Fatty acid composition of nerve cells declines with ageing, but dietary supplementation improves the conduction of signals across nerve cells, which can help prevent neurodegeneration, protect nerve cells, and improve brain function Kumar, G., and Khanum, F. (2012). Neuroprotective potential of phytochemicals. [online] Pharmacognosy reviews, 6 (12), pp. 81-90. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3459459/ [accessed 25 Aug. 2017].
    • Fatty acids are key constituents of all cell membranes and myelin sheaths surrounding nerves
    • Myelin is a fatty white layer around the nerve cells, like the foam insulating layer that surrounds pipes in homes
    • Without this insulation nerves cannot conduct impulses Peters, B., Machielsen, M., Hoen, W., Caan, M., Malhotra, A., Szeszko, P, Duran, M., Olabarriaga, S. and de Haan, L. (2013). Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Concentration Predicts Myelin Integrity in Early-Phase Psychosis. [online] Schizophrenia Bulletin, 39 (4), pp. 830-838. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22927668 [accessed 25 Aug. 2017].
  • EFAs are essential to the process which allows nutrients into the cells, and toxins and waste products out
  • Essential fatty acids are necessary for the proper functioning of all hormones Gluck, M. and Edgson, V. (2010). It Must Be My Hormones. Camberwell, Vic.: Penguin Group (Australia), p. 126.
  • Increasing your EFAs can help alleviate symptoms of depression, anxiety, and insomnia

However PUFAs are not all good:

  • PUFAs are essential for the production of prostaglandins
  • Prostaglandins are lipid rich compounds with hormone-like effects on various organs of the body – causing uterine contractions as well as contributing to atherosclerosis and inflammation Ricciotti, E. and FitzGerald, G. (2011). Prostaglandins and Inflammation. [online] Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology. 31 (5), pp. 986-1000. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21508345 [accessed 25 Aug. 2017].
  • Certain PUFAs DHA and EPA may increase brain oxidative stress Hsu, Y.-M., and Yin, M.-C.. (2016). EPA or DHA enhanced oxidative stress and ageing protein expression in brain of d-galactose treated mice. [online] BioMedicine, 6 (3), p. 17. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4980825/ [accessed 25 Aug. 2017].

A deficiency of PUFAs, and especially in Omega 3 and Omega 6 fatty acids can contribute to the following mental health problems:

  • Depression, including perinatal depression and bipolar disorder Grosso, G., Pajak, A., Marventano, S., Castellano, S., Galvano, F., Bucolo, C., Drago, F. and Caraci, F. (2014). Role of omega-3 fatty acids in the treatment of depressive disorders: a comprehensive meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. [online] PloS One 9 (5), e96905. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4013121/ [accessed 26 Aug. 2017]. 
  • Potentially implicated in psychosis and schizophrenia Vijayakumar, N., Bartholomeusz, C., Whitford, T., Hermens, D., Nelson, B., Rice, S., Whittle, S., Pantelis, C., McGorry, P., Schäfer, M. and Amminger, G. (2016). White matter integrity in individuals at ultra-high risk for psychosis: a systematic review and discussion of the role of polyunsaturated fatty acids. [online] BMC Psychiatry, 16 (1), p. 287. Available at: https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-016-0932-4 [accessed 26 Aug. 2017]. 
  • Problems with brain development, cognition and behaviour including ADHD, dyspraxia, dyslexia Montgomery, P., Burton, J., Sewell, R., Spreckelsen, T. and Richardson, A. (2013). Low blood long chain omega-3 fatty acids in UK children are associated with poor cognitive performance and behavior: a cross-sectional analysis from the DOLAB study. [online] PloS One, 8 (6), e66697. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23826114 [accessed 26 Aug. 2017].
  • EFAs are necessary for the construction and maintenance of all cells in the body and brain Greenblatt, J. (2011). The Breakthrough Depression Solution. North Branch, MN: Sunrise River Press, pp. 145-6.
  • EFAs are an essential constituent of the myelin sheath – sheaths surrounding the nerve cells ensuring they can work rapidly and effectively
  • EFAs are a key constituent of prostaglandins – a group of physiologically active lipid compounds having diverse hormone-like effects in animals (2017). Prostaglandin. [online] Wikipedia. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostaglandin [accessed 30 Oct. 2017].
  • EPA and DHA (forms of EFAs) are key building blocks for babies’ brains, are essential for brain development and reducing inflammation

Omega 3s are EFAs, and are essential to brain health and function.

Omega-3 fatty acids are fats which come in three types that have slightly different structures: EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid), DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) and ALA (alpha-linolenic acid) Kidd, P. (2007). Omega-3 DHA and EPA for cognition, behavior, and mood: clinical findings and structural-functional synergies with cell membrane phospholipids. [online] Alternative Medicine Review 12 (3), pp. 207-27. Available at: http://www.altmedrev.com/publications/12/3/207.pdf [accessed 26 Aug. 2017]..

Role of Omega 3s in mental health

We are currently the third or fourth generation with inadequate DHA intakes, and experts now think this could have a lot to do with the increasing rates of neurological and mental health problems Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 40..

  • Both EPA and DHA are important for motor function, learning and behaviour
    • Low levels are associated with ADHD/dyspraxia and reduced reading skills and behaviour improvement in school age children
  • Omega 3 important for mood and depression Scott, T. and Amen, D. (May 2015). The Brain Warrior’s Way to Attacking Anxiety, Depression and Ageing. [online] The Anxiety Summit, Season 3. Available at: http://season3.theanxietysummit.com/.
  • Neuropsychiatric disorders such as mood and social disorders may be exacerbated by low intake of maternal and early life omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids Robertson, R. C., Seira Oriach, C., Murphy, K., Moloney, G. M., Cryan, J. F., Dinan, T. G., Paul Ross, R. and Stanton, C. (2017). Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids critically regulate behaviour and gut microbiota development in adolescence and adulthood. [online] Brain, Behavior and Immunity. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27423492 [accessed 30 Oct. 2017].
  • Pregnant and breastfeeding mothers must make sure to get enough EPA and DHA which are key building blocks for a baby’s brain
  • DHA is essential for brain development including eyesight development
  • DHA supplementation has been shown to reduce aggressive behaviour Kidd, P. (2007). Omega-3 DHA and EPA for cognition, behavior, and mood: clinical findings and structural-functional synergies with cell membrane phospholipids. [online] Alternative Medicine Review 12 (3), pp. 207-27. Available at: http://www.altmedrev.com/publications/12/3/207.pdf [accessed 26 Aug. 2017].
  • Twenty-four week supplementation with 900 mg/d DHA improved learning and memory function in age-related cognitive decline Yurko-Mauro, K., McCarthy, D., Rom, D., Nelson, E. B., Ryan, A. S., Blackwell, A., Salem, N. Jr., Stedman, M. and MIDAS Investigators. (2010). Beneficial effects of docosahexaenoic acid on cognition in age-related cognitive decline. [online] Alzheimer’s and Dementia, 6 (6), pp. 456-64. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20434961 [accessed 30 Aug. 2017]. 

Low Omega 3 has been shown to correlate with:

  • Depression, bipolar, suicide
    • Low levels of omega-3, especially EPA, are associated with depression, bipolar disorder, self-harm/para suicide, suicide, homicide, poor impulse control and aggression Patrick, R. and Ames, B. (2015). Vitamin D and the omega-3 fatty acids control serotonin synthesis and action, part 2: relevance for ADHD, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and impulsive behavior. [online] The FASEB Journal, 29 (6), pp. 2207–2222. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25713056 [accessed 26 Aug. 2017]., Beier, A., Lauritzen, L., Galfalvy, H., Cooper, T., Oquendo, M., Grunebaum, M., Mann, J. and Sublette, M. (2014). Low plasma eicosapentaenoic acid levels are associated with elevated trait aggression and impulsivity in major depressive disorder with a history of comorbid substance use disorder. [online] Journal of Psychiatric Research, 57, pp. 133–140. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25017608 [accessed 26 Aug. 2017]., Evans, S., Assari, S., Harrington, G., Chang, Y., Burant, C. and McInnis, M. (2015). Plasma linoleic acid partially mediates the association of bipolar disorder on self-reported mental health scales. [online] Journal of Psychiatric Research, 68, pp. 61–67. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26228402 [accessed 26 Aug. 2017].
    • EPA in particular (rather than DHA), has been shown to have a positive impact on depression Hallahan, B., Ryan, T., Hibbeln, J., Murray, I., Glynn, S., Ramsden, C., SanGiovanni, J. and Davis, J. (2016). Efficacy of omega-3 highly unsaturated fatty acids in the treatment of depression. [online] The British Journal of Psychiatry 209 (3), pp. 192-201. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27103682 [accessed 26 Aug. 2017].
    • In countries where people eat between a pound and a pound and a half of seafood per week, men and women have significantly lower rates of major depression Tanskanen, A., Hibbeln, J., Tuomilehto, J., Uutela, A., Haukkala, A., Viinamäki, H., Lehtonen, J. and Vartiainen, E. (2001). Fish consumption and depressive symptoms in the general population in Finland. [online] Psychiatric Services, 52 (4), pp. 529-31. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11274502 [accessed 26 Aug. 2017]., Noaghiul. S. and Hibbeln, J. (2003). Cross-national comparisons of seafood consumption and rates of bipolar disorders. [online] American Journal of Psychiatry, 160 (2), pp.2222-7. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14638594 [accessed 26 Aug. 2017]., and suicide Sublette, M., Hibbeln, J., Galfalvy, H., Oquendo, M. and Mann, J. (2006). Omega-3 polyunsaturated essential fatty acid status as a predictor of future suicide risk. [online] American Journal of Psychiatry, 163 (3), pp.1100-2. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16741213 [accessed 26 Aug. 2017]. than in countries where people eat less than that amount
    • Fish consumption impacted rates of postpartum depression in a study comparing rates of PPD in 22 countries Kendall-Tackett, K. (2016). Can Fats Make You Happy? [online] Uppity Science Chick. Available at: http://www.uppitysciencechick.com/can_fats_make_you_happy.pdf [accessed 26 Aug. 2017]., Okereke, O., Rosner, B., Kim, D., Kang, J., Cook, N., Manson, J., Buring, J., Willett, W. and Grodstein, F. (2012). Dietary fat types and 4-year cognitive change in community-dwelling older women. [online] Annals of Neurology, 72 (1), pp. 124–134. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22605573 [accessed 26 Aug. 2017].
    • Substantially improve mood in drug-resistant depressed patients Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 7.
  • Anxiety and lack of resilience to stress
    • A diet rich in omega 3s has been shown to help improve stress resilience, reduce anxiety, and can prevent adrenal activation from mental stress, and reduce the stress hormone cortisol Delarue, J., Matzinger, O., Binnert, C., Schneiter, P., Chioléro, R. and Tappy, L. (2003). Fish oil prevents the adrenal activation elicited by mental stress in healthy men. [online] Diabetes & metabolism, 29 (3), pp. 289-95. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12909818 [accessed 26 Aug. 2017]., Gottfried, S. (2013). The Hormone Cure. New York, NY: Scribner, p. 104.
    • A diet rich in omega 3s has been shown to influence cardiac variability, and hence cardiac coherence, both of which are important for mental health
  • Psychosis
    • Low serum levels of omega 3s have been correlated with psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia Lake, J. (2009). Integrative Mental Health Care. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., p. 217, p. 228.
  • Cognitive impairment
    • Abnormally low blood levels of the omega-3 essential fatty acid DHA may be an indicator of the severity of cognitive impairment in malnourished or demented individuals Lake, J. (2009). Integrative Mental Health Care. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., p. 238.
  • Inflammation
    • Low levels of Omega 3s are correlated with greater levels of inflammation Okereke, O., Rosner, B., Kim, D., Kang, J., Cook, N., Manson, J., Buring, J., Willett, W. and Grodstein, F. (2012). Dietary fat types and 4-year cognitive change in community-dwelling older women. [online] Annals of Neurology, 72 (1), pp. 124–134. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22605573 [accessed 26 Aug. 2017].

Cause of deficiency in Omega 3

Modern Western diets and agriculture:

  • Tend to be poor in Omega 3s, as they are high in omega 6, transfats, hydrogenated vegetable oils and processed foods
  • During evolution Omega-3s were found in all foods such as consumed-meat, wild plants, eggs, nuts, fish and berries Simopoulos, A. (2011). Evolutionary aspects of diet: the omega-6/omega-3 ratio and the brain. [online] Molecular Neurobiology, 44 (2), pp. 203–215. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21279554 [accessed 26 Aug. 2017]., however due to modern industrial diets and agricultural methods, levels of Omega-3s in most Western diets have plummeted
  • Processing (heating, processing, cooking, etc.) damages omega 3s which are very fragile, hence there has been a huge decline in omega 3s in our modern diets Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 35.
  • Vegetarian and vegan diets can be poor in Omega 3s Scott, T. and Keith, L. (May 2015). Anxiety, Depression and the Vegetarian Diet. [online] The Anxiety Summit, Season 3. Available at: http://season3.theanxietysummit.com/.

The brain has the highest proportion of Omega 6 compared to other body tissues Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 37..

Omega 6 fatty acids include:

  • LA (linolenic acid)
  • AA (arachidonic acid)
  • Gamma-Linolenic Acid (GLA)
  • Adrenic Acid (AdA)

Vaz, J. S., Kac, G., Nardi, A. E. and Hibbeln, J. R. (2014). Omega-6 fatty acids and greater likelihood of suicide risk and major depression in early pregnancy. [online] Journal of Affective Disorders, 152, pp. 76–82. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23726775 [accessed 26 Aug. 2017].

Role of omega 6 in mental health

  • High intake of LA fatty acids is associated with depression, inflammation, heart disease and cancer
  • Higher levels of AA and AdA are associated with greater likelihood of suicide risk and major depression among pregnant women Vaz, J. S., Kac, G., Nardi, A. E. and Hibbeln, J. R. (2014). Omega-6 fatty acids and greater likelihood of suicide risk and major depression in early pregnancy. [online] Journal of Affective Disorders, 152, pp. 76–82. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23726775 [accessed 26 Aug. 2017].
  • Omega 6 taken in supplement form of GLA has been shown to
    • Relieve symptoms of schizophrenia
    • Improve memory and relieve symptoms of withdrawal in the diet of alcoholics
    • Improve memory and cognitive function in patients with Alzheimer’s
    • Improve symptoms of PMS

    Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, pp. 37-8., Patterson, E., Wall, R., Fitzgerald, G.F., Ross, R.P. and Stanton, C. (2012). Health implications of high dietary omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids. [online] Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism, 12, 539426. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22570770 [accessed 26 Aug. 2017].

Ratio between Omega 3s and Omega 6s

What is important however is not the total amount of Omega 6, but rather the ratio of Omega 6 to Omega 3.

Western diets tend to favour Omega 6, which can be found in vegetable oils, and this tips the ratio too far towards Omega 6, to the detriment of Omega 3s.

Most plant products are really high in Omega 6s but not in Omega 3s. A diet too high in Omega 6 and too low in Omega 3 has been heavily implicated in anxiety, depression and mental illness Scott, T. and Keith, L. (May 2015). Anxiety, Depression and the Vegetarian Diet. [online] The Anxiety Summit, Season 3. Available at: http://season3.theanxietysummit.com/..

An imbalance between Omega 6 and Omega 3 can cause:

  • Inflammation, through an overproduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines
  • Depression Greenblatt, J. (2011). The Breakthrough Depression Solution. North Branch, MN: Sunrise River Press, pp. 145-159. through changes in the serotonin receptor Simopoulos, A. (2011). Evolutionary aspects of diet: the omega-6/omega-3 ratio and the brain. [online] Molecular Neurobiology, 44 (2), pp. 203–215. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21279554 [accessed 26 Aug. 2017].
  • Anxiety Scott, T. and Keith, L. (May 2015). Anxiety, Depression and the Vegetarian Diet. [online] The Anxiety Summit, Season 3. Available at: http://season3.theanxietysummit.com/.

A ratio of 1:1 Omega 3 to Omega 6 is ideal, and reflects the ratio in ancient and traditional diets Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 34..

In our current Western diets, the ratio is now about 20:1 Omega 6 to Omega 3. This change is due to changes in dietary habits, processed foods, and agricultural practices such as feeding live stock Omega 6 rich grains Simopoulos, A. (2011). Evolutionary aspects of diet: the omega-6/omega-3 ratio and the brain. [online] Molecular Neurobiology, 44 (2), pp. 203–215. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21279554 [accessed 26 Aug. 2017]..

Role of phospholipids in mental health

  • Phospholipids help make up the myelin sheath which protects nerves and ensures the smooth transmission of signals to the brain
  • Phospholipids are precursors to acetylcholine, the ‘memory’ neurotransmitter
  • Phospholipids can help to boost mood, memory and cognition
  • Phospholipids are essential for supporting methylation
  • Phospholipids help keep homocysteine in check, and high homocysteine has been linked with a number of degenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s

Phosphatidylcholine

  • Necessary for the production of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 44.
    • Acetylcholine is involved in learning and memory, and supplementing has been shown to improve memory, learning ability, and improving neural connections Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 43.
  • Phosphatidylcholine balances feelings of arousal versus feelings of calm Gluck, M. and Edgson, V. (2010). It Must Be My Hormones. Camberwell, Vic.: Penguin Group (Australia), p. 83.
  • Phosphatidylcholine improves liver function, thus aiding detoxification Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 49.

Phosphatidylserine

  • Phosphatidylserine is a phospholipid which is an essential component of nerve cell membranes, protecting brain cells and helping them to communicate
  • Phosphatidylserine has been shown to boosts memory and cognitive function, and has been shown to be helpful with dementia symptoms Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, pp. 5-6, p. 46., Gottfried, S. (2013). The Hormone Cure. New York, NY: Scribner, p. 104., Lake, J. (2009). Integrative Mental Health Care. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., p. 240.
  • Phosphatidylserine been shown to improve depressive symptoms and seasonal affective disorder Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 46.
  • Phosphatidylserine been shown to lower cortisol and reduce the influence of stress on the brain
    • Oral supplementation with phosphatidylserine/phosphatidic acid (PAS)-400mg of each can normalize the hyper-response of the HPA axis to acute stress Hellhammer, J., Vogt, D., Franz, N., Freitas, U. and Rutenberg, D. (2014). A soy-based phosphatidylserine/phosphatidic acid complex (PAS) normalizes the stress reactivity of hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal-axis in chronically stressed male subjects: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. [online] Lipids in Health and Disease, 13 (1), p. 121. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4237891/ [accessed 26 Aug. 2017]. 

DMAE

  • Necessary to synthesise phosphatidylcholine in the brain
  • Supports the production of acetylcholine, the amino acid implicated in memory Kumar, K. and Sachdeva, A. (2015). Pharmacological cognitive enhancers in neuro-psychiatry — a critical appraisal. [online] Stroke, 2 (2), pp. 19-31. Available at: http://www.ajcn.in/pharmacological-cognitive-enhancers-in-neuro-psychiatry.html [accessed 28 Aug. 2017].
  • DMAE has been shown to help with learning problems, Attention Deficit Disorder, memory and behavior problems, reduce anxiety, calm the mind, improve alertness, boost mood and energy levels, and improve concentration and learning Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, pp. 46-7.

It’s easier for DMAE to cross the blood-brain barrier than it is for phosphatidylcholine Holford, P. (2004). Patrick Holford’s New Optimum Nutrition Bible. London: Piatkus, p. 46..